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U.S. interest in Mozambique lies in the role it plays in the development of the southern African region as a growing market for U.S. exports. An American firm, ENRON, signed an accord with the Government of the Republic of Mozambique (GRM) in late 1995 to develop a natural gas project worth roughly $700 million, potentially the largest recent American investment in sub-Saharan Africa. In addition, given Mozambique's importance in providing ocean access for several landlocked countries and its proximity to the Republic of South Africa, political stability and economic growth in Mozambique contribute to U.S. national interests of peace, stability, and economic growth throughout the entire southern Africa region.
The transition from brutal civil war to peace that began with the signing of the Peace Accords in October 1992 has encompassed the demobilization of opposing armies, resettlement of almost five million displaced persons and refugees, successful democratic elections, and the installation of a new government that gives high priority to economic reform. Mozambique is moving away from central planning toward a market-oriented economy with increasing emphasis on private sector-led growth. Economic growth has begun to rebound since the Peace Accords. The GRM has recently streamlined the investment code, making the playing field more level for both domestic and foreign investors. Multi-party democracy there is only two years old and the institutions of democracy are just beginning to function as they must. The emergence of a multi-party National Assembly and plans to decentralize government are additional positive indicators. Recent increases in the prevalence of corruption and signs of poor management in the public sector are troubling signs, however. The task of consolidating Mozambique's economic and political reforms is complicated by its poverty.
The Development Challenge.
With an official average per capita income of $90 annually, Mozambique is among the poorest countries in the world. The overwhelming majority of Mozambicans live in poverty. Eighty percent of the total population lives in rural areas, two-thirds of them in absolute poverty. Rain-fed subsistence agriculture leaves the rural poor particularly vulnerable to recurring drought and natural disasters. The average daily caloric intake in Mozambique is just 77% of the daily estimated requirement (the average for sub-Saharan Africa is 93%). Chronic malnutrition is estimated to affect 30% to 40% of Mozambique's children, with 6% believed to be acutely malnourished.
Meanwhile, the population's growth rate of 2.7% per annum erodes improvements in the standard of living. Mozambique's social services were decimated by war. One-third of all rural health units were either destroyed or closed during the long civil war there, with the result that roughly 60% of the population still lacks access to health services. Fifty percent of child deaths in Mozambique's hospitals are attributable to common, treatable diseases. HIV infection in USAID's program focus area is estimated to be 10%. Illiteracy rates are 25% higher than the average for sub-Saharan Africa and nearly 70% of the primary school network has been closed down.
A sine qua non for both rapid economic growth and democratization is continued policy reform. USAID has been a leader among donors in setting the economic and political reform agenda in Mozambique. USAID has urged rapid privatization of state-owned firms, actively promoted private American investment in Mozambique, and pressed the GRM to move swiftly on financial sector reform and clamping down on corruption. An unusually high level of donor collaboration exists both with respect to economic policy reform and good governance. The policy dialogue with the GRM's economic team is very productive and open as well, which sets a positive framework for assistance programs.
The GRM recently outlined an ambitious program of financial sector reform, customs and tax reform, investment promotion, privatization, decentralization, and combatting corruption. Implementation has slipped somewhat, a high rate of inflation continues to retard investment, and reforms of the banking sector and customs are still not fully implemented. The donor community has placed concrete achievements in these areas at the top of the policy agenda for 1996. Mozambique, however, has a particular vulnerability with its external debt burden of approximately $5.2 billion, or nearly four times the Gross Domestic Product ($1.5 billion), as well as its exceptionally high dependence on external assistance ($1.1 billion).
Mozambique's new democracy is very fragile. Power sharing with an informed National Assembly is beginning, but will require years of nurturing and strong political commitment. Internalizing the electoral process so that it becomes a permanent feature of Mozambique's new democracy will also take time and effort. Greater community participation in local decision-making depends upon effective implementation of GRM decentralization goals. Delivery of social services, such as health care, also requires innovative approaches involving local community participation in order to ensure sustainability.
Other Donors.
The United States is one of the largest donors in Mozambique and in FY 95 committed $44 million, plus an additional $19 million of P.L. 480 assistance. The donor community at large pledged roughly $780 million last year for development assistance. Other major contributors are: the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, the United Nations agencies, the European Union, Sweden, Denmark, Italy and the Netherlands.
FY 1997 Program.
USAID's strategy focuses on the enhancement of human productivity through 1) increasing rural household income, 2) supporting efforts to ensure that government is more accountable to its citizens, and 3) improving the health of women and children through increased use of innovative, community-based child health and family planning services. Increasing rural income will not only provide resources to improve the quality of life, but will also lead to on-farm investments and expansion of nascent rural enterprises. Good government and democracy, which require informed participation, accountability, and respect for human rights are inextricably linked to sustainable development. Primary health care is critical to enhancing human productivity. Healthy people contribute to increased economic productivity and participation in government and are better able to devote time and resources to improving their families' well-being.
Agency Goal: Encouraging Broad-based Economic Growth
As one of the world's poorest countries, Mozambique requires broad-based, sustainable economic growth to reduce the number of its citizens living in poverty. USAID will continue its leadership role in promoting policy reform as the foundation of its strategy to accelerate economic growth. Mozambique is well endowed with agricultural resources and possesses one of the best arable land-to-population ratios in sub-Saharan Africa. USAID's strategy will focus on the central provinces which provide homes for over half of the population and the highest agricultural potential. USAID, in collaboration with its private voluntary organization (PVO) partners, undertook a food security assessment and implementation strategy in March 1996. This assessment, and the subsequent development of a food security strategy, are necessary to guide USAID's work toward fulfillment of its country strategic plan sub-goal of enhancing national food security. These activities will serve as the basis for the design of a new multi-year Title III program and Title II development activity proposals.
The strategy supports improved access and market development, expanded rural enterprise, and increased agricultural production through improvements in the policy environment, technology/skill transfer, and rehabilitation of basic infrastructure. In the post-war period, USAID funded PVO activitiesthat provided nearly 5 million returning refugees and internally dislocated persons with seeds and basic tools to enable them to re-establish their farms. Transport access is critical to increasing rural income. Recent USAID projects have demined and opened over 600 miles of rural access roads and reopened the bridge that links the north to the south, thereby significantly increasing local capacity to move surplus food crops to food-deficit areas. USAID has also identified an additional 900 miles of high priority access roads for rehabilitation in its target areas that will further encourage agricultural production, lower the cost of marketing food crops and thus contribute to improved national food security. Support for the formation and expansion of rural enterprises will provide additional opportunities for value-added transformation, expanded services delivery and employment generation.
Emerging from 16 years of civil war and single-party socialistic government, Mozambique held successful multi-party presidential and legislative elections in 1994. A legitimate, democratically elected opposition now has substantial representation in the parliament. Democracy and participatory government are new concepts to Mozambique and institutionalization of these concepts is in an early stage. Further assistance will be required to firmly establish these democratic principles. Mozambique is a large country with poorly developed transportation and communications systems. Furthermore, the central government does not have the resources to effectively address local issues. The GRM has embarked on a program of decentralizing authority and resources to the provincial and district levels. Local elections are also planned for 1997. During the post-election period, USAID provided assistance to help establish a multi-party parliament. New legislation is being actively and openly debated. However, the lack of transparency and accountability in government continues to be a serious problem.
Current estimates of infant, child (under 5 years) and maternal mortality suggest that conditions in Mozambique are among the worst in the world. Life expectancy is 44 years for males and 48 years for females. At all levels of the health care infrastructure, the health sector lacks the institutional, human and financial resources to deliver quality health services, especially in the rural areas. USAID has been a world leader in developing innovative, low-cost mechanisms to deliver basic lifesaving health services to mothers and children. USAID's comparative advantage in the health sector lies in health services delivery as evidenced by past achievements in its Primary Health Care Support Project, USAID supplied essential drugs to rural health facilities, and the provision of technical assistance and in-service training for improved management and increased use of data for planning purposes in several provinces. USAID/Mozambique and its PVO partners have earned a reputation for service delivery in emergency health and nutrition. In the post-emergency period, these low-cost/community-based health service delivery mechanisms will be improved and expanded to newly resettled areas. While the allocation of government resources to the social sector increased dramatically last year, allocations are nonetheless inadequate to provide basic services. Close collaboration with the PVO community has helped in the formulation of USAID's strategy, and both USAID and the government are relying on community-led initiatives, with PVO assistance, to expand the availability of and access to adequate health care.
Agency Goal: Providing Humanitarian Assistance
Drought is becoming increasingly common in Mozambique and food security for a significant percentage of the population is threatened on a regular basis. Improvements in food crop marketing and transportation will help to diminish this problem but, for the near term, periodic emergency assistance will likely be required. USAID retains its capacity to provide humanitarian assistance using a combination of P.L. 480 Title II Emergency and Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance resources. The USAID food security assessment looked at phasing down the historical support of Title II emergency feeding programs and instead increasing the role of both Title II and Title III efforts further along the relief to development continuum.
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Encouraging Broad-based Economic Growth |
Stabilizing World Population Growth & Protecting Human Health |
Protecting the Environment |
Building |
Providing Humanitarian Assistance |
TOTALS |
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USAID Strategic Objectives |
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1. Rural household income increased in targeted areas - Dev. Fund for Africa - P.L. 480 Title II |
11,165,504 |
7,762,959 |
10,700,000 |
18,928,463 |
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2. Government more accountable to citizens - Dev. Fund for Africa |
3,374,474 |
3,374,474 |
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3. Use of essential maternal/child health/ family planning services increased in focus areas - Dev. Fund for Africa - P.L. 480 Title II |
14,583,565 |
1,800,000 |
14,583,565 |
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Totals - Dev. Fund for Africa - P.L. 480 Title II |
11,165,504 10,700,000 |
14,583,565 |
7,762,959 |
3,374,474 |
12,500,000 |
36,886,502 12,500,000 |
USAID Mission Director: James T. Smith (Acting)
PROGRAM: MOZAMBIQUE
TITLE AND NUMBER: Rural Household Income Increased in Targeted Areas, 656-S001
STATUS: Continuing
PROPOSED OBLIGATION AND FUNDING SOURCE: FY 1997: $18,928,463 DFA; $10,700,000 P.L.480 Title II
INITIAL OBLIGATION: FY 1996; ESTIMATED COMPLETION DATE: FY 2001
Purpose: To increase household income of the rural poor in the central provinces of Mozambique by increasing access to markets, expanding rural enterprises and increasing agricultural output.
Background: Mozambique's economy was shattered by years of civil war and economic mismanagement. With the arrival of peace and stability, a concerted effort to economically develop the country is now possible. This rural, largely agrarian, society will depend upon smallholder agriculture to propel export and overall economic growth for the foreseeable future. Therefore, USAID will direct its resources to help in creating the conditions for improving rural incomes through labor-intensive activities such as farming and expanding small and microenterprises to stimulate rapid growth of the direct incomes of the rural poor. This approach will produce growth with equity and contribute significantly to enhanced national food security.
USAID Role and Achievements to Date: Although the Mission's Country Program Strategic Plan was only approved last year, this strategic objective builds upon the highly successful Transition Program that removed economic policies constraining the private sector, supplied a broad safety net through the provision of food aid and the seeds and tools needed to re-establish agricultural production, and improved the market infrastructure. While the focus of the Transition Program was on averting hunger and starvation, bringing peace to the land, and reintegrating dislocated populations into the social and economic life of the country, the current strategy focuses on the development of the productive capacity of the rural population. The resurgence of agricultural production and economic activity is readily apparent. In the past year, the country as a whole moved from producing 57% to 72% of its own cereal food requirements. The production of the important cash crops, cotton and cashews, increased 41% and 67%, respectively.
Description: To increase sustainable agricultural output and expand rural small and microenterprises, the Private Voluntary Support II Project finances the work of private voluntary organizations (PVOs) to deliver improved seed and farming know-how to smallholders and increase the value-added processing and marketing of their production, while transferring business and entrepreneurial skills. Developmental food aid programs contribute significantly to these objectives by using food-for-work and monetized local currencies for the same purposes. To increase market access, the Private Sector Support Program and Technical Assistance Project is promoting an improved economic policy environment and disseminating market prices that provide incentives to agricultural production while the Commodity Import Program supports the importation of U.S. capital goods. Perhaps most importantly, the new Rural Access Project is continuing to rehabilitate rural access roads, thus linking surplus food-producing areas with food deficit areas.
P.L. 480 Title II and anticipated Title III activities fall under strategic objective one and contribute to the third strategic objective, Increased Use of Essential Maternal Child Health and Family Planning Services. The Mission has a Food Team to address food security issues and the programming of Title II and III resources. The food security objectives of access and availability are both addressed through strategic objective one; food utilization is addressed under strategic objective three. The special strategic objective of Providing Humanitarian Relief is for Emergency Programs only.
USAID activities under Title II and III have moved from a relief focus to a developmental focus. Under Title II, USAID will work with its PVO partners (World Vision, CARE, Africare, ADRA and Save the Children) to design and implement programs to promote greater food access, availability and utilization. The earlier Title III commercial food aid program successfully engaged the private sector, and especially microenterprises, in the cereals market trade. If a new multi-year Title III program is approved, it will work to expand local oilseed production and processing, as well as to continue to leverage policy reforms in the areas of liberalizing prices and marketing, and de-regulating private formal and informal trade of agricultural commodities. The commodities being considered for both Title II monetization and possible Title III programs are wheat, crude vegetable oil, and possibly rice.
Host Country and Other Donors: Other donors are also very active in the rural development of the central provinces. On a technical level, key donors (World Bank, United States, Sweden, Denmark, Germany, Great Britain) meet regularly to coordinate efforts. The Ministry of Public Works and Housing effectively coordinates donor assistance into the rehabilitation of rural roads under the World Bank-led Roads and Coastal Shipping Project. A donor working group is chaired by the Vice-Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries, and a sub-working group coordinates the assistance of donors to the reform and implementation of land use policies. Donors are even more active in discussion and coordination of macroeconomic issues (in which USAID plays a key role) and sectoral policy formulation with the Government of the Republic of Mozambique (GRM).
Beneficiaries: An estimated nine million people, 52% of Mozambique's population, live in the target areas for the USAID strategy. Virtually all of these will benefit from the improved policy environment and market information system. In conjunction with other donors, the overall multi-donor roads program and market information system will improve market access for 65% of the population. Food aid assistance, either through food for work programs or monetized food commodities (programs that permit the use of local currency from the sale of U.S.-provided food aid), will provide a food safety net for 2.5 million people.
Principal Contractors, Grantees, or Agencies: PVOs include World Vision, Care, Africare, Food for the Hungry, National Cooperative Business Association, Heifer Project, Save the Children, World Relief, and the Adventist Relief and Development Agency. U.S. universities include Michigan State University and the University of Wisconsin. Contractors for the road rehabilitation and maintenance work are still to be determined.
Major Results Indicators:
Baseline Target
Increase in real average household income $ 55 per annum (1995) $98 per annum(2001)
Change in volume and value (corn) 83,000 tons (1995) 134,000 tons(2001)
of marketed goods (beans) 12,500 tons (1995) 20,100 tons(2001)
(cashews) 22,000 tons (1995) 35,400 tons(2001)
Change in the size and number of
small and micro-enterprises1/
Increase crop production (corn) 346,500 tons (1995) 449,000 tons (2001)
(in four target provinces)
Increase livestock production 90,500 (1995) 145,500 (2001)
-small ruminants (in four target provinces)
PROGRAM: MOZAMBIQUE
TITLE AND NUMBER: Government More Accountable to Citizens, 656-S002
STATUS: Continuing
PROPOSED OBLIGATION AND FUNDING SOURCE: FY 1997: $3,374,474 DFA
INITIAL OBLIGATION: FY 1996; ESTIMATE COMPLETION DATE: FY 2001
Purpose: To increase citizen influence on government policies and actions impacting on their lives.
Background: The Government in Mozambique has historically been unresponsive, due to lack of will, capacity and resources, to the needs and interests of the vast majority of the population. The central government's power and authority in much of the rural countryside is marginal at best--and parasitic at worst. In much of the countryside, traditional authorities are the most legitimate form of leadership. Over the last year or two, however, slow improvements in governance were discerned. In 1994, with crucial U.S. leadership and support, the country conducted its first multi-party national elections. A more representative legislature is now functioning and civil society is increasingly able to make its views known. Legislation supporting representative local government is now law. Given USAID's worldwide experience in the democracy and governance (DG) sector, the Agency's significant role in affecting recent DG improvements in Mozambique, and the receptivity on the part of both government and civil society to assistance in this area, this strategic objective was a natural choice. This program includes the final two years of DG activities under the Democratic Initiatives Project.
USAID Role and Achievements to Date: Achievements in the DG sector include support for the 1994 national elections, including training of some 32,000 political party monitors, civic/voter education reaching an estimated 1.7 million eligible voters, and logistics. The election, in which 80% to 85% of the total estimated electorate voted, is considered a model by international observers. Since the election, efforts have focused on strengthening the capacity and/or understanding of various actors in the political arena, including the legislature, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) representing civil society interests, and traditional authorities. USAID will continue to work, as it has in the past, very closely with other members of the U.S. Country Team to achieve further results in this area.
Description: USAID activities will focus on four main areas: 1) civic education programs implemented by U.S. and local NGOs designed to inform citizens about their rights and responsibilities, such as voting, in a pluralistic democratic system; 2) technical assistance to support decentralization through strengthening the ability of community-based organizations to participate in local governance, and of local governments to effectively respond to voiced priorities and interests; 3) through policy dialogue and technical assistance, support to the process of raising civil society viewpoints on key public policy issues, e.g., the role of central government, to the attention of government policy makers through increased, informed public debate; and 4) strengthening the electoral process through technical assistance aimed at building the capacity and knowledge of key actors in the process, namely the electorate, political parties and the government's administrator of elections. The sustainability of these efforts is predicated on the belief that once a government becomes more accountable, those in civil society benefiting from that responsiveness will be very reluctant to see accountability decline, and will therefore act on their own behalf to preserve it.
Host Country and Other Donors: Based largely on USAID's past contributions to the DG sector, both the central government and civil society actors are receptive to most aspects of this program. Many of the donors active in Mozambique are involved to some extent in the sector. The World Bank and the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) will likely continue their significant DG programs. In terms of resource levels, the USAID program ranks perhaps fourth or fifth in overall size, and second or third among bilateral programs. In terms of influence, however, the U.S. effort ranks near the top. Other major donors are primarily working to strengthen central government institutions. In contrast, no significant efforts are being made through other donors to increase government accountability. It should be noted that inthe DG sector, in particular, USAID works extremely closely with other donors, in this case through the Aid to Democracy Group chaired by the UNDP.
Beneficiaries: In order to increase the chances of measurable impact given resource constraints, USAID will focus civic education and decentralization activities in three out of the four central provinces selected as the target of the overall USAID program due to their large population concentrations and potential for agriculturally-led economic development. Given the national scope of other activities under the program, achievement of the strategic objective will benefit all Mozambicans. Women and other historically disenfranchised groups will be specifically targeted for impact monitoring.
Principal Contractors, Grantees, or Agencies: Activities under the strategic objective will be implemented primarily through U.S. and local NGOs. U.S. organizations involved with the current program include the National Democratic Institute, the International Republican Institute, the African American Institute, and the State University of New York.
Major Results Indicators:
Baseline Target
Within focus areas, perceptions of National Level - 1% (1995) National Level-25% (2001)
influence on public decisions by
Political actors (citizens, political party Local level - 0%2/ Local Level
leaders, national and local level (1995) In Target Area-50% (2001)
assembly deputies, civil society actors) (1995) In Focus Area-25% (2001)
(1995) Nationally-15% (2001)
Key macro-political reforms implemented 7 to 13 reforms
(1995) implemented (2001)
Increase citizen participation in National Level - 1% (1995) National - 25% (2001)
governance at the national and local Local Level - 0% (1995) Local - 50% (2001)
levels. Citizens in focus areas who
have had contact with national and
local assembly deputies
National assembly deputies 35% (1995) 100% (2001)
who have consulted constituents
in focus areas within the last six
month period
Local assembly deputies who have 0% (1995) 50% (2001)
consulted constituents in focus
areas within the last six month period
Government and civil society National Level - 5% (1995) National Level - 50% (2001)
institutions are effective and Local Level - 5% (1995) Local Level - 75% (2001)
accountable at the national and
local levels. Citizens in focus areas
understand how and why public
decisions are made and implemented
by executive branch at the national
and local levels
PROGRAM: MOZAMBIQUE
TITLE AND NUMBER: Use of Essential Maternal/Child Health/Family
Planning Services in Focus Areas, 656-S003
STATUS: Continuing
PROPOSED OBLIGATION AND FUNDING SOURCE: FY 1997: $14,583,565 DFA; $1,800,000 P.L. 480 Title II
INITIAL OBLIGATION: FY 1996; ESTIMATE COMPLETION DATE: FY 2001
Purpose: To increase use of essential community-based maternal child health services by increasing access and demand for services and improving management in focus areas.
Background: Current estimates of infant, child and maternal mortality suggest that health conditions in Mozambique are among the worst in the world. The infant mortality rate is estimated to be 140 to 173 per 1,000 children, while child maternal mortality is estimated between 260 to 275 per 1,000. The official maternal mortality rate is 300 per 100,000 life births, but the actual rate is much higher since approximately 60% of births occur without assistance from a trained provider (thus, data are not captured). In addition, due in part to massive population movements during and after the civil war, it is estimated that 10% of the population in USAID focus areas is infected with HIV/AIDS. Access to health information and service remains the major constraint to increased use of health services. Only an estimated 30% of the population has access to health care, and as many as 40% of the facilities have no trained staff. The health sector lacks the institutional, human and financial resources to deliver quality health services, as well as an adequate information base on which to make decisions and set priorities.
USAID Role and Achievements to Date: Through its Primary Health Care Support Project, USAID has supplied essential drugs to most rural health facilities throughout the country. The project also provides technical assistance and in-service training for improved management and increased use of data for planning purposes in three provinces. This technical assistance will continue with the new strategy approved last year. Through the Private Voluntary Organization (PVO) Support Project, USAID provides grants to 11 U.S. and international PVOs to improve rural health by delivering basic health, water and sanitation services. This support has evolved from an emergency-oriented approach to one stressing long-term development and sustainability. Under USAID's new strategy, support for the child survival activities of PVOs will continue, with increased emphasis on child survival and reproductive health issues.
This strategic objective was a logical choice, one in which USAID's comparative advantage can make a significant difference, given that 1) USAID's acknowledged leadership in maternal and child health and years of experience supporting innovative low-cost approaches to health service delivery, 2) the Mission's credibility and experience in the sector, and 3) the GRM's receptivity and recently revised policy framework.
Description: This strategic objective will focus on the delivery of basic essential community based maternal and child health services and practices, such as diarrheal disease prevention and treatment, vaccination, child spacing, prenatal care, nutrition, health education, breast-feeding promotion, and HIV/AIDS and sexually-transmitted diseases prevention and treatment. This will entail working with communities, the Mozambican Government, NGO's and the private sector to assure and expand cost-effective service delivery, while increasing community responsibility for and family knowledge of essential health behaviors and interventions.
Host Country and Other Donors: Mozambique relies heavily on donor support for its health services, particularly in rehabilitating or refurbishing rural health facilities which were destroyed during the war. However, few donors are dealing directly with community-based support for maternal child health services. Swiss Cooperation, at the request of the Ministry of Health, has taken the lead in coordinating donoractivity in the area of health. At the same time, donors are "buying-in" to central and provincial-level plans for health activities as the government moves from centralized to provincially-based, decentralized administrative and financial systems. As a result, USAID is participating with the Ministry of Health and other donors in areas agreed upon as high priority.
Beneficiaries: Children under five years of age and women of child-bearing age in Mozambique represent almost 40% of Mozambique's population. The USAID-supported program will focus on the most densely populated provinces and will reach approximately five million people.
Principal Contractors, Grantees, or Agencies: USAID will continue to make grants to eligible PVOs and indigenous NGOs to carry out activities in support of this strategic objective. Also, USAID will use U.S.-based cooperating agencies to provide technical assistance for information, education and communication programs, logistics management, data collection and analysis and training. An institutional contractor will provide technical assistance to assist the Ministry of Health's decentralized management.
Major Results Indicators:
Baseline3/ Target
Proportion of living children between ages 12 35% (1994) 65% (2001)
and 23 months who have received
diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus vaccine
Proportion of infants less than four months 10% (1990) 25% (2001)
of age who receive no foods or liquid other
than breast milk
Proportion of all cases of diarrhea in children 15% (1994) 25% (2001)
under five treated with oral rehydration salts
and/or a recommended home fluid.
Proportion of women of reproductive age who 3% (1994) 10% (2001)
are using (or whose partner is using) a
contraceptive method at a particular point in
time